OzTorah

Q. When should a tombstone consecration or unveiling take place?

A. Whenever is convenient. Many people have the consecration about a year after the death, though some prefer a date at the end of the Sh’loshim (first 30 days) and others choose the end of the Shivah (first seven days).

Strictly speaking, no consecration ceremony is necessary, though it is a great act of piety and has psychological and spiritual value for the bereaved, as well as for family and friends.

The erection of a tombstone – with or without a consecration ceremony – derives from the example of Jacob who placed a monument over Rachel’s grave (Gen. 35:20). In II Samuel 18:18 we read that Absalom, during his lifetime, erected a tombstone for himself because he had no sons to maintain his memory or name.

Q. The Shema tells parents to teach their children. So who invented schools?

A. According to the Shema, teaching a child is a parental duty: “You shall teach them (the words of Torah) thoroughly to your children”.

In Biblical times schools did exist, but not for the masses. The introduction of formal elementary schools was almost fortuitous, to cater for children who had no parents or whose parents were unable to teach them; Talmudic sayings praise those who teach other people’s children.

By the early 1st century BCE, schooling had become so established that Shimon ben Shetach ruled that all children should go to school. Now came the creation of a teaching profession, “for otherwise the Torah would be forgotten”. For this Yehoshua ben Gamala or Yehoshua ben Perachya was responsible.

In his history of Jewish elementary education Eliezer Ebner gives three reasons for this development: the example of Greek and Roman schools; the growing complexity of Jewish knowledge; and the reorganisation of Jewish life under the Pharisees.

Because of their sin, every generation asks a question: does sin always bring suffering; is suffering always because of sin?

The Talmud was not prepared to say yes to either part of the question.

It saw that life does not work that way. If it did, we would never be exercised by the age-old issue of tzaddik v’ra lo, rasha v’tov lo – “the righteous who suffers, the wicked who prospers”.

The Adam and Eve question is classical; it is also modern. It is asked, by implication at least, by all who seek to find meaning in the Holocaust.

The way they put the question is, were the victims of the Holocaust sinners, and was the Holocaust their punishment?

In a major essay in the Jerusalem Post, Pinchas Peli addresses this question and asks some questions of his own.

If, he says, the Holocaust is – only hypothetically – to be seen as punishment, “does there exist a sin enormous enough to justify such a punishment?”

He points out that the victims shared one characteristic – they were Jews. Therefore if there was a “sin”, it must have something to do with their Jewishness.

Some, like the Satmar Rebbe, postulate that it was the “sin” of Zionism, and that the Zionist movement wrongly anticipated the redemption.

Others, such as Rabbi Yisachar Shlomo Teichtal in his Em HaBanim S’mechah, say the “sin” was anti-Zionism; Jews had the opportunity of returning to the land of Israel and missed it.

An alternative view is that the “sin” was assimilation; the argument runs that in Germany, where the decrees of destruction began, Jews were on the way to spiritual annihilation and to prevent it they suffered physical annihilation first.

But using the Adam and Eve story to explain the Holocaust creates more problems than it solves.

Eliezer Berkovits tells us in his Faith After the Holocaust to “stand in awe before the memory of the k’doshim“.

He is adamant: “Not for a single moment shall we entertain the idea that what happened to European Jewry was divine punishment for any sins committed by them. It was injustice absolute… The idea that all this has befallen us because of our sins is an utterly unwarranted exaggeration.

“There is suffering because of sins; but that all suffering is due to it is simply not true. The idea that the Jewish martyrology through the ages can be explained as divine judgment is obscene” (pp. 89, 94).

Perhaps the most important warning in the many versions of Holocaust theology is that in the end some questions are simply too big, and none of the simplistic answers is adequate.

We must and will continue to ask the questions, chipping away at the rock, as the Midrash puts it, but accepting that that may be as far as we in our generation will be able to go.

Q. I have two questions about the beginning of history. What did Adam and Eve really do wrong when they ate the fruit of the tree? What was the cause of the quarrel between Cain and Abel?

A. According to Nachmanides (Ramban), before eating the fruit of the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil, Adam and Eve lacked the power to make decisions. Like the heavenly bodies, they were like mere machines, programmed to function in a set way.

By partaking of the fruit of the tree, their destiny changed for ever. They gained the power of decision-making and were now able to choose their path, whether moral or immoral. This therefore provides an origin for human free will.

The root of the quarrel between Cain and Abel in Genesis chapter 4:9 is not completely spelt out in the text.

The Italian commentator Umberto Cassuto suggested that it harks back to verse 2, which says, “Abel was a feeder of flocks: Cain was a tiller of the ground”, and that the quarrel indicates that there was always rivalry between the tiller of the soil and the shepherd which in subsequent generations became a well-known feature of folklore.

Though Cassuto could find no specific literary evidence for this suggestion, later discoveries of Ugaritic texts lend support to his explanation.

Rashi says there are many Midrashim on the subject but does not elaborate in much detail.

Seeking midrashic material, we find reports that the brothers were always at odds and their father thought it would separate them and quieten things down if each one followed a different occupation, but in the end the hostility could not be prevented.

Another Midrash suggests that they argued over a girl; each son had a twin sister, and Cain desired the sister of Abel and sought any pretext to remove Abel from the scene.

ANANEI KAVOD – “Clouds of glory” with which God protected the Israelites in the wilderness.

ANI VAHO – “I and He”, a phrase in the prayers for Hoshana Rabbah (see below); probably a version of Ana HaShem, “Please, O Lord” (Psalm 118:25).

ARAVOT – willow twigs: see arba’ah minim. Generally called weeping willow because of their sad look; also known as Babylonian willows: see Psalm 137:2.

ARBA’AH MINIM – “Four Kinds (of plant)” – a lulav, an etrog, 3 hadassim and 2 aravot (see note on each one) taken during services in thanksgiving for the harvest; waved in all four directions and up and down to mark God’s presence. All are held together: “Israel can only be redeemed when they are united” (Yalkut Shim’oni 188a).

Symbolising the diversity of a community, the etrog has taste and smell, the lulav taste but no smell, the myrtle smell but no taste, and the willow neither taste or smell. Standing for the unity of the human body, the etrog symbolises the heart, the lulav the spine, the myrtle the eyes and the willows the lips (Rosh to Suk. Chap. 3). (See also here and here.)

B’TZILA D’MEHEMNUTA – “In the shadow of faith”, an expression for Divine protection.

CHAG HE’ASIF – “Festival of Ingathering”, a Biblical name for Sukkot (Ex. 23:16, 34:22).

CHOL HAMO’ED – intermediate days of the festival when business activities are kept to a minimum. Most people do not lay tefillin on Chol HaMo’ed.

D’FANOT – “walls”: see “sukkah”. 4 walls are not essential; 3 or 2 and a half are acceptable so long as the structure can stand.

ESROGIM NACH SUKKOS – Ashkenazi Hebrew/Yiddish phrase for “Etrogim after Sukkot”, i.e. something that comes too late.

ETROG – citron: see arba’ah minim. Extra effort is needed to acquire a beautiful etrog. In some places an etrog was so rare and expensive that there would be only one for the whole community. (See also here and here.)

HADAR – “splendid”; the etrog is called “fruit of a hadar tree” in the Torah.

HADASSIM – willows of the brook: see arba’ah minim.

HAKAFOT – circuits of the synagogue carrying arba’ah minim.

HALLEL – psalms said on festivals (Psalms 113-118).

HE-CHAG – the festival: Talmudic name for Sukkot.

HIDDUR MITZVAH – beautifying the commandment, e.g. with a handsome sukkah or lulav. Noy sukkah, “sukkah decoration”, includes fruit, flowers, pictures, texts, etc.

HOSHA-NA – “Save, please”, liturgical refrain: see Psalm 118:25.

HOSHANA RABBAH – “The Great Hoshana“, 7th day of Sukkot (Num. 29:32), marked with solemn prayers for forgiveness, reminiscent of Yom Kippur. A Mishnaic name is yom sh’vi’i shel aravah, “the 7th day of the willow”: see hoshanot.

Pious people stay up on the previous night to study Torah, also customary on Erev Shavu’ot. (See also here.)

HOSHANOT – popular name for willow twigs beaten on Hoshana Rabbah to symbolise shedding one’s sins.

IS’RU CHAG – “Bind the festival offering” (Psalm 118:27): a name for the day after a festival.

KOHELET – Ecclesiastes, read at the end of Sukkot. The cynicism of the book fits in to the autumnal mood of this time of year.

(See also here, here, here, here, here, here, and here.)

KOL M’VASSER V’OMER – “A voice calls and says”, a refrain on Hoshana Rabba.

LEVIATHAN – a huge sea creature whose hide will cover the tent for a messianic feast where its flesh will be eaten.

LULAV – palm branch: see arba’ah minim. Tall and straight, the lulav stands for righteousness and courage but not for egotism and pride.

LULAV HA-GAZUL – ‘Stolen Lulav”, not to be used on Sukkot: in Lev. 23:40, “You shall take lachem (unto yourselves) the fruit of a goodly tree etc.”; lachem = shelachem, “your own”.

NA’ANU’IM – “movements”, waving the arba’ah minim in the four directions of the compass plus up and down.

NISSUCH HA-MAYIM – “Water Libation”, understood by the Pharisees as replacing the wine libation. When a Sadducee high priest showed his disdain for this ritual, the populace pelted him with etrogim.

PITTOM – button-like protrusion on one end of an etrog. If the pittom is broken off, the etrog is no longer kosher, but kosher etrogim can also grow without a pittom.

REGEL BIF’NEI ATZMO – “An independent festival”: rabbinic description of Sh’mini Atzeret (outside Israel, Simchat Torah is its 2nd day).

S’CHACH – “Covering” (usually foliage) for the sukkah. It must grow from the ground, be detached from the soil (a trailing vine is not acceptable), and not be a manufactured article susceptible to ritual contamination. The usual s’chach is leaves or branches, though bamboo matting is often used.

S’chach must not be so thick that the sun or stars cannot be seen, nor so thin that there is more light than shade. Last year’s s’chach may not be used unless it is shifted around a little.

SHILO’ACH (“sent”) = SILO’AM – a fountain in a valley on the outskirts of ancient Jerusalem; the site of the water-drawing (see below). The root “to send” is because the fountain emits water.

SH’MINI ATZERET – “8th day festival”: see regel bif’nei atzmo. There is a custom to eat in the sukkah on this day but without the sukkah benediction.

SIMCHAT BET HA-SHO’EVAH – “Festival of the Water-Drawing”, celebration and carnival which was so exciting in 2nd Temple times that “Whoever did not see the joy of the water-drawing has never seen real joy” (Mishnah Sukkah 5:1).

SIMCHAT TORAH – “Rejoicing of the Torah”, celebrating the conclusion and recommencing of the annual Torah readings (in Israel, combined with Sh’mini Atzeret).

SUKKAH – “covering” (Lev. 23:42-43: symbolic of the portable dwellings of the Israelites in the wilderness). Though the term is usually translated “hut” or “booth”, the essential feature is the covering. The walls may be of any substance.

A sukkah may be of any shape but must be big enough for one person sitting at a small table. Maximum height is 20 cubits (about 30 feet); minimum is 10 handbreadths. A sukkah should not be built under the overhanging branches of a tree or inside a building: see s’chach. A removable rainproof covering may be placed above the s’chach but must be taken off when the sukkah benediction is said.

The obligation of sitting in the sukkah can be fulfilled in someone else’s sukkah; one may borrow but not steal a sukkah (Deut. 16:13 says that a sukkah must be l’cha, “yours”; borrowing is regarded as “yours”).

(See also here, here, here, here, here, and here.)

SUKKAT DAVID HA-NOFELET – “David’s fallen tabernacle” (Amos 9:11), the royal dynasty or the Temple which will be restored in messianic times.

SUKKAT SHALOM – “Tent of peace”; the sukkah symbolises the prayer that the Divine protection of peace may cover all Israel and mankind.

SUKKOT – “Huts, Booths, Tabernacles”, 7-day festival (Lev. 23:40) marked by the sukkah and the arba’ah minim.

Sh’mini Atzeret and Simchat Torah are popularly but wrongly regarded as the 8th and (outside Israel) 9th days of Sukkot: see regel bif’nei atzmo.

Both Temples were dedicated on Sukkot (I Kings 8, Ezra 3:1-5). The original Chanukah was an eight-day celebration postponed from Sukkot of that year (II Maccabees 10).

(See also here, here, here, here, here, and here.)

TA’ASEH V’LO MIN HE-ASUY – “Make (it) and not (use) what is made”: the sukkah must be specially made (Deut. 16:13). A ready-made sukkah may be used if a human being erects it; an old sukkah may be used if a human being moves the s’chach around.

USHPIZIN – “Guests” (from Latin “hospes”, “lodging”) who visit the sukkah each evening – Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Moses, Aaron and David (though the sequence differs).

The idea, from the Zohar, was promoted by the Ari, Rabbi Isaac Luria, 16th cent. Many invite the wives of the guests: Sarah as well as Abraham, etc. There is a belief that the Ushpizin will not enter the sukkah unless hospitality is also extended to guests who need company, support and food.

V’ZOT HA-B’RACHAH – “And This is the Blessing”; final section of the Torah (Deut. 33-34) read on Simchat Torah. Taking one year to read the Torah became the widespread usage by the 9th century, overtaking the alternative three-year cycle.

WATER DRAWING – see Simchat Bet Ha-Sho’evah. According to the Mishnah, on Sukkot we are judged concerning water (RH 1:2), because this is the beginning of the wintry period in Israel and because water symbolises redemption (“You shall draw water in joy from the wells of salvation”: Isa. 12:3).

YIZKOR/MAZKIR/HAZKARAT N’SHAMOT – memorial prayers on Sh’mini Atzeret.

Z’CHUT AVOT – “Merit of the Patriarchs”, a liturgical theme. Jewish belief is that our destiny is created by our own deeds but the thought of our ancestors comes to our credit.

Z’MAN SIMCHATENU – “Our time of joy”, a description of Sukkot deriving from Deut. 16:15, “You shall be extremely joyful”. Sukkot was more joyous than the other festivals in ancient times because it marked the successful end of the year’s crops.

(See also here, here and here.)